Samurai Vs Knight Essays - Samurai, Japanese People, Emperor Jimmu

Samurai Vs Knight Many people often see little similarity between the country of Japan and Europe. However, there are actually several similarities between these two countries. In fact, Reischauer and Jansen note that Feudal Japan had departed so far from East Asian norms that it was more similar to medieval Europe than it was to China. Thus, the knight of Europe and the samurai of Japan despite a lack of contact with one another shared several common elements. This was a result of many similarities social and cultural influences experienced by the two distant countries. Japan has a history that dates back thousands of years. Researchers believe the Japanese people descended from many groups that migrated to the islands from other parts of Asia, including China and Korea. As early as 4500 B.C., the Japanese islands were inhabited by fishermen, hunters and farmers. The early culture was known as Jomon, named after the cord pattern pottery crafted by the people at the time. Major Japanese cultural changed occurred about 200 B.C. The people were known as Yayoi. The Yayoi were mostly farmers. It is believed that the present-day Japanese closely resemble the Yayoi in appearance and language. Ancient Yayoi warriors developed weapons, armor and a code during the ensuing centuries that became the centerpiece for the Japanese samurai. War played a central part in the history of Japan. Warring clans controlled much of the country. A chief headed each clan; made up of related families. The chiefs were the ancestors of Japan's imperial family. The wars were usually about land useful for the production of rice. In fact, only 20% of the land was fit for farming. The struggle for control of that land eventually gave rise to the Samurai. One of the important dates in the history of the Japanese warring class is 660 B.C. That's when, according to legend, Emperor Jimmu became head of a confederation of warlike clans. Emperor Jimmu was known as The Divine Warrior. He led his people from Kyushu to the Kinki region and conquered the people there. Eventually Emperor Jimmu settled in the area of Yamato. This eventually gave rise to the Yamato dynasty and state. The leaders of Yamato believed themselves to be of divine origin. Later, the Yamato clans conducted many military campaigns on the Asian mainland. The targets included Korea and China and these campaigns led to the importation of Korean and Chinese culture, technology and military arts. A comparison between the knight of Europe and the samurai of Japan may demonstrate how these two countries had more in common than one might originally suppose. The samurai and the knight had his origins in military and economic need. His role was as a warrior, and like the samurai in some cases he was little more than a thug rewarded for his viciousness. But if a knight was to succeed, he had to take his role in the military seriously. Furthermore, like the samurai of Japan as time went on, success required more than brawn: it required loyalty to his liege-lord in society as well as strategy and ingenuity on the battlefield. Born of Noble blood and birth in the time of Charlemagne, in the 9th and 10th Centuries of France, and his successors. The knight emerged from the cavalry of Carolinian times a free man owing military services. Similar to the Samurai the knight was given land by provincial landowners and swore allegiance to a lord in return for military and sometimes other services, all of which were to protect the interests of their lords. With little to no Central government sanctioned army Kingdoms struggled to survive, constantly faced by the threat of invasion by nomadic tribes and aggressive neighbors, including Magyars and Vikings. Thus, the knight came from little more than mediocre status raised above the peasant by his expensive horse, armor, and violent manner. His violence was illustrated when Georges Duby wrote, ?moral obligations and the persuasion their peers were all that could impose a limit to the [Knights] violence and greed.? However, when the Church attempted to harness the knigh t and his military prowess in the 11th to 13th centuries the knight was raised to a very high level of Nobility (Gies,

Spanish Words for Snow and Winter Weather

Spanish Words for Snow and Winter Weather An urban legend has it that the Eskimo language has 25 (or many more, depending on the version) words for snow. While the statement is seriously flawed, it does have some truth to it: Living languages, by their very nature, come up with the words or means to describe nearly everything that people talk about and to differentiate among them. While Spanish may not be a language instantly associated with snow - most Spanish-speaking countries are in moderate climates - it has plenty of words and phrases for the white stuff, as this listing shows. Words and Phrases for Snow and Related Phenomena el agua nieve, el aguanieve: sleet, rain mixed with snowel chubasco: intense snow showerla conchesta: large snowdriftcopo, copo de nieve: snowflakela cornisa de nieve: cornicela cubiera de nieve: snow covercubierto de nieve: snow-coveredel cà ºmulo de nieve: snowdriftla escarcha: frostescarchado: covered with frostel glaciar: glacierla granizada: hailstormel granizo: hail, sleet, hailstone. The verb form is granizar.el granizo blando: soft hail, graupel, snow pelletla helada: frosthelado: (adjective) frozen, very coldel hielo: icela nevada: snowfall; the amount of snow that has fallen over a period of time without interruptionel nevado: snow-capped mountain, snowcap (Latin American usage)nevar: to snow (The Spanish verb is defective in that it is used only in the third-person singular form.)la nevasca: fallen snow, snowfall, snowstorm, blizzardla nevazà ³n: snowstorm (word used in parts of South America)el nevero: permanent mountain snowfield or the snow in such a snowfieldla nieve : snowla nieve amontanada: driven snow la nieve artificial: artificial snowla nieve derretida: melted snow, snowbrothla nieve dura: crusty snow, packed snowla nieve fresca: fresh snowla nieve fusià ³n: snow that becomes almost liquid when it is skied or slid uponla nieve hà ºmeda: wet snowla nieve medio derretida: slushla nieve polvo: powder snow; a more colloquial term is nieve azà ºcar. meaning sugar snowla nieve primaveral: spring snowlas nieves: snowfallla nieve seca: dry snowla nieve virgen: virgin snowla piedra: hailstone (the word can refer to any type of stone)la rfaga: flurry (the word can also be used to refer to a rain shower)la tormenta de nieve: snowstormla ventisca: blizzardventiscar, ventisquear: to blow snow with a strong wind, to blow a blizzardel ventisquero: snowdrift Spanish Words for Items or Situations Related to Snow aislado por la nieve: snowbound, snowed under, snowed inel alud: avalanchela avalancha: avalanchebloqueado por la nieve: snowbound, snowed under, snowed inla bolita de nieve, la bola de nieve: snowballlas cadenas para nieve: snow chainscegado por la nieve: snow-blindel esquà ­: skiesquiar: to skila motonieve: snowmobileel muà ±eco de nieve: snowmanla quitanieve, la quitanieves: snowplowla raqueta de nieve: snowshoeel snowboard: snowboardla tabla para nieve: snowboardel traje de invierno: snowsuit, winter clothing Translations of English Words or Phrases Using snow Blancanieves: Snow Whitetomarle el pelo a alguien: to do a snow job on someonela nieve, la cocaà ­na: snow (slang term meaning cocaine)el raspado: snowcone (term used in parts of Latin America) Sample Sentences Siguià ³ nevando todo el dà ­a. (It kept on snowing  all day.)Si has llegado a tu destino y continà ºa granizando, no salgas del coche hasta que pare o se debilite la tormenta. (If you have arrived at your destination and it keeps on hailing, dont leave your car until it stops or the storm weakens.)El frà ­o de la noche originà ³ una capa de hielo en el parabrisas. (The cold of the night created a layer of ice on the windshield.)La nieve dura es una de las nieves ms difà ­ciles de esquiar. (Packed snow is one of the most difficult snows for skiing.)El nieve polvo de Colorado es legendaria. (The powder snow of Colorado is legendary.)Los turistas de la motonieve han llegado a la meta, totalmente agotados pero muy satisfechos. (The snowmobile tourists have arrived at the destination, totally worn out but very satisfied.)Corrà ­amos el riesgo de quedar bloqueados por la nieve. (We ran the risk of remaining snowed in.)Una fuerte nevada cayà ³ en las altas cumbres, donde la gente llegà ³ a armar muà ±ecos. (A heavy snowfall fell in the high peaks, where people arrived to build snowmen.)

Computer Operating Systems Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Computer Operating Systems - Research Paper Example It manages the resources of the computer. It allocates the CPU, memory and the input/output devices. It manages the data that is it handles the storage of the data it manages the input and output. It enables communication between the system and the user. There are different types of operating system available in the market such as Real-time, Multi-user, Multi-tasking, Distributed and Embedded. Real-time operating systems are used in applications which are real-time . Multi-user operating system are useful when there are more than one users to access a single computer at the same time. In Multi-tasking operating systems different tasks are executed at the same time. In Distributed operating system many computers are connected together to give the appearance of a single computer. Embedded operating systems are used in systems which are embedded. â€Å"Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android,BSD,iOS,GNU/Linux,Mac OS X,Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone and IBM z/OSâ €  (Operating System para. 4). In this research we will discuss various operating systems such as Snow Leopard, Windows, Linux, Unix and Ubuntu. We will study the advantages and disadvantages of these operating systems. We will also learn how these operating systems are installed in the computer. Snow Leopard – Snow leopard is an operating system used in Macintosh systems. It has a high performance, good efficiency and uses less memory to run. It is compatible with the new hardware of Macintosh. â€Å"New programming frameworks such as OpenCL were created allowing software developers to use graphic cards in their applications† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard para.2). It is not compatible with the Mac systems which use processors like PowerPC. â€Å"As support for Rosetta was dropped in Mac OS Lion, Snow Leopard is the last version of Mac OS X that is able to run PowerPC-only applications† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard para.2). It supports Intel’s Core Solo and Core Du o Processors which are 32-bit. Power is managed properly as new features like the â€Å"wake on demand feature supported on more recent Macintosh hardware. Wake on demand takes advantage of the sleepy proxy service implemented in Airport and Time Capsule routers, so that the computer can sleep while the router responds to mDNS queries. Should the request require the host computer to wake up, the router sends the necessary special wake-up-packet to sleeping computer† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard pg.4). System requirements of Snow Leopard are – A Mac Computer consisting of Intel processor RAM of 1GB Minimum 5GB free space DVD drive or USB for installing Some features need more requirements such as – â€Å"QuickTime H.264 hardware acceleration support, requires an Nvidia GeForce 9400M,320M, or GT330M graphics card† â€Å"OpenCL, requires a supported Nvidia or ATI graphics card† (Mac OS X Snow Leopard pg.2). Advantages and disadvantages – It is best t o use same company’s software and hardware while designing a system, but Snow Leopard uses Intel Processors and Nvidia graphic cards. This affects the performance of the system. There are least chances of virus attacks as compared to windows. There are less gaming features in it as most gaming companies prefer providing softwares for Windows operating system. There are interesting softwares bundled with Snow Leopard. Its desktop is very attractive. Installation – 1. Insert the Snow Leopard installation DVD in to the disk. 2. Double- click Install button. 3. Click on the continue button and accept

Ethics in an informations society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ethics in an informations society - Essay Example In addition, this aspect of ethics should have to be an environmental ethics in support of the information. In this scenario, ethics could be defined as the ideologies or ways leading an individual or business or standard of performance in the society (Floridi, 2001; Bynum, 2008; ArifSari, 2011). This paper discusses the basics and importance of ethics in information society. The basic aim of this research is to proficiently analyze the basic ethical aspects such as responsibility, accountability, and liability. Basics of Ethics The practice of information technology IT is upgrading a lot of aspects of individual effort and way of life. It seems to be doubtful that what are challenges and the societal and ethical inferences of these improvements? The bases of these challenges are the several means wherein an individual is able to conceive as well as understand the practice of IT or society inter-association. All of these ways of formation and elucidation allow an individual to discri minate the society association or IT in a different way and consequently interpret its social as well as ethical inferences in a diverse way. This access is related to an approach which is acknowledged as the phenomenological approach to understand IT along with its social and ethical suggestions (Introna, 2005; Froehlich, 2004). Moreover during the last few years, information ethics emerged as a field of study in information science and library sciences, however the area or the expression has been changed with the passage of time and it started capturing several other areas of interest and research. Actually, it could be seen as a convergence of the ethical doubts of media, reporting, information and library sciences disciplines, computer ethics comprising cyber-world ethics, MIS, web based technology and the business framework (Introna, 2005; Froehlich, 2004). Ethics in Constructing Information Society The technological frameworks which offer the basis for the information society or ICTs are proposed through the integration of principles and values. Additionally, sometimes these principles are not identified by the designer, as in recent times we can see obvious principles for instance the security of individual confidentiality which is allowed to be utilized openly. In this scenario, the basic purpose behind designing the WWW (World Wide Web) was to offer a decentralized distribution of data as well as information, available for all individuals. In addition, ease of access by all societal groups is currently one of the prime concerns of the information society, highlighting the identical privileges of each associate of the society. However, the analysis of a lot of technical professionals is that the methodologies they propose are only tools as well as worth free (Duquenoy, 2009). Basic Ethical Concepts Ethics means to understand the beliefs that persons as well as

U.S. HISTORY (What did the Gilded-Age city offer to newcomers) Essay

U.S. HISTORY (What did the Gilded-Age city offer to newcomers) - Essay Example Specifically, in the realm of industry, people who were moving to the cities in search for employment were able to see the greatest growth in technology, development of politics and economic systems. One of the greatest strengths of America, even to modern day, has been in American ingenuity in the research and development of technology. Especially after the Civil War and after reconstruction, many new technologies and ways of creating goods were revolutionizing the American way of life as well as the goods and services that were being provided. Industrialization was especially important as the second industrial revolution took place. During this time, the greatest growth was seen in the steel and coal industries. This allowed the creation of new jobs, although this did not always mean that the pay and safety concerns were adequately met. In addition, electrical production was becoming more of a common day occurrence. There was also experimentation in chemical refining such as the production of newer and better metallic alloys which were being used in the construction of buildings and in other applications. Not only was the second industrial revolution an impact on the United St ates, but it was also having a major impact in other parts of the world such as in Europe. It can be extrapolated that without the increased industrial and technological growth that occurred in the Gilded Age that the United States and the other Allies would not have been able to fight as efficiently during World War I. Especially after the Civil War and Reconstruction, the face and development of politics had radically changed. Corruption was growing as quickly as the monopolies of the steel and railroad tycoons. These larger cities were dominated by political machines in which politicians would be backed by special interest groups who were funding their campaign and office. This was also

The International Accounting Standards Board Structure

The International Accounting Standards Board Structure There is overwhelming demand for high quality accounting standards that are internationally accepted. It is of the utmost importance that the IASB delivers these as quickly as possible. Required: a) Outline the current structure of the IASB, highlighting the major influences and controls on it. (30%) b) Explain the main advantages of high quality, internationally accepted accounting standards and the main challenges the IASB faces in developing them. (50%) c) Comment on the quotation above and give a conclusion on its validity. (20%) ANSWER a) The International Accounting Standards Board (hereafter â€Å"IASB†)[1] replaced the International Accounting Standards Committee on April 1 2001. This represented the culmination of a restructuring project based on the recommendations of the report Recommendations on Shaping IASC for the Future.[2] The IASB, which is based in London, is constituted by fourteen board members drawn from nine different countries, of whom twelve are full-time and 3 are part-time. The composition of the membership is as follows: a minimum of five former auditors, three former users of accounts, three former preparers of accounts, and one academic. The remaining two can be drawn from any of these backgrounds or from a different background. The IASB is entrusted with the responsibility to establish International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and its goal is to create conformity and compatibility around the world.[3] Its mission statement is to provide â€Å"high quality, understandable and enforceable global accounting standards†[4]. This is a substantial task, given that the accounting principles generally accepted in each individual country can in practice differ significantly between national jurisdictions. The IASB is organised on the following lines. Its parental body, the IASC Foundation is an independent entity having two main arms, namely, the Trustees and the IASB, and in addition it incorporates the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee and a Standards Advisory Council. The 22 Foundation Trustees of the IASC are empowered to appoint members to the IASB, to exercise general oversight and administrative and managerial supervision, and to generate the funds needed to finance the operation. However it should be stressed that the IASB has sole and exclusive responsibility for establishing accounting standards. The focus of the IASB is on the pursuit of a rolling work plan. The work plan is determined and updated at regular IASB meetings and reflects the objectives and broad timetable of the Memorandum of Understanding[5] between the IASB and the US Financial Accounting Standards Board (hereafter â€Å"FASB†) which lays down the so-called Roadmap for Convergence between IFRSs and US GAAP between 2006 and 2008.[6] The Memorandum of Understanding establishes goals that the IASB and FASB have agreed to achieve so as to facilitate the convergence of accounting standard-setting.[7] The long-term strategic priority of both the IASB and FASB remains the establishment of a common set of high quality global standards. b) The overarching goal of the IASB is the creation and maintenance of a set of understandable, enforceable and effective accounting standards for consistent application around the world. The object of this exercise is to attempt to guarantee both equivalence and transparency in certain universal financial statements compiled in different national jurisdictions across the globe by engineering a commensurate and smooth convergence of previously diverse national standards of accounting reporting..[8] It is manifest that the achievement of such an end would facilitate international business and investment, reduce commercial risk and increase transparency, and improve the general quality of financial reporting around the world. The IASB has resolved that if consistently reliable and effective financial reporting infrastructure is to be established it must both embody and reflect four essential characteristics:[9] 1. It is deemed essential that settled accounting standards are consistent, comprehensive and founded on a transparent set of general principles which strive to guarantee that financial reports fairly and accurately reflect all background and underlying financial realities. 2. Functional mechanisms must be put in place to ensure the adoption of efficient and effective corporate governance practices, and that in turn these should incorporate a condition for strict systems of internal control which serve to apply common accounting standards. 3. Auditing practices must be established in which the diverse users and prepares of accounts in the outside world can invest confidence and trust, and which categorically establish that undertakings produce reports which represent a true and fair view of their economic performance and overall financial state. 4. It is necessary to implement a cogent surveillance and enforcement regime which ensures that the fundamental rules and principles as determined by the universally prevailing auditing and accounting standards are both respected and applied.. The Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements[10] was published by the IASB’s predecessor, the International Accounting Standards Committee in 1989. Popularly known as the Conceptual Framework, this document lays down the essential concepts to be adhered to in the production of financial statements for external appraisal and usage. The Framework deals with such matters as: qualitative characteristics of financial information; fundamental assumptions; objectives of financial statements; elements of financial statements; core components of financial statements; measurement of the items of financial statements; capital maintenance issues.[11] That said, it is worth emphasising that the Conceptual Framework is not accorded the full status of an accounting standard. The same can be said of the Statement of Principles of the UK Accounting Standards Board. This obviously constitutes a practical challenge because it renders application less certain and can result in a dilution of the principles it endeavours to entrench. Despite this difficulty, the Framework guides the current work of the IASB in its development of contemplated International Financial Reporting Standards and it influences the IASB’s rolling review of established International Accounting Standards.. It is submitted that this modus operandi should encourage the harmonisation of accounting standards, and hone those procedures and regulations relevant to the presentation and substance of financial statements by setting down an underlying conceptual rationale for reducing the number of different accounting treatments allowed under international standards. The IASB faces a huge challenge in catering for the all the different classes of users of financial statements, who may seek to use those financial statements for a wide number of purposes. Given that users may include classes as diverse as, suppliers, lenders, trade creditors, investors (current and potential), employees, customers (current and potential), the general public and Government agencies, it is clear that the IASB has to take a vast array of different and sometimes competing interests into account in determining the appropriate rules of accounting.[12] c) It is very hard to argue with the quote under review, because there is manifestly considerable demand among, in particular accounts users, who rely upon accounts to guide a multiplicity of business and investment decisions, for high quality accounting standards that are both internationally accepted and respected and universally applied. Given that unarguable truth the second part of the quote is also clearly well founded. Of course it would be desirable to deliver improvements to accounting standards as soon as possible. This commentator can conceive of no reason to delay the introduction of what would represent a significant improvement in conditions of finance and trade, in particular given the increasing globalisation of business and commerce and the relative growth in the number of international transactions as opposed to national transactions with each passing year. In simple words, business is becoming ever more global and accounting standards must consolidate to reflect t hat new environment and practice. The demand and determination to achieve high quality and internationally accepted accounting standards is perhaps best evidenced by the focused cooperation between accounting standard setting bodies witnessed in recent years. In 2004 the IASB started work on a project in partnership with the US FASB which is aimed at the development of a so-called common conceptual framework, in the hope of that such would facilitate the convergence and refinement of the existing frameworks of both accounting standards Boards.[13] Demand for tighter and more consistent accounting standards has also been fuelled by analysis of the high profile corporate collapses of companies like Enron and WorldCom in recent years.[14] Accountants were widely criticised for auditing errors in these cases, which have already proved the catalysts for a raft of new corporate governance regulations.. These huge corporate collapses and others of their ilk have not only given rise to increased demand for accounting standard improvement and consolidation but also underline the very real need for concerted action in this field. In sum, it is submitted that the quote under review is well founded in both its primary assertions.. THE END WORD COUNT: 1574 (excluding footnotes) BIBLIOGRAPHY Recommendations on Shaping IASC for the Future: A Report of the International Accounting Standards Committee’s Strategy Working Party, Recommendations to the IASC Board, 30 November 1999: http://www.iasb.org/uploaded_files/documents/8_210_swp_rep.pdf Mirza and Epstein, IFRS: Interpretation and Application of International Accounting Standards, (2006) Wiley Horngren, â€Å"Uses and Limitations of a Conceptual Framework,† Journal of Accountancy, April 1981 Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements, http://www.iasplus.com/standard/framewk.htm. Alfredson et al., Applying International Accounting Standards, (2005) Wiley. Lewis and Pendrill, Advanced Financial Accounting, (2004) Prentice Hall International Accounting Standards Board website: http://www.iasb.org/Home.htm Inman, UK accounting firms enjoy  £1bn bonanza in wake of Enron, The Guardian, 28 June 2006. Memorandum of Understanding between the FASB and the IASB 27 February 2006: http://www.iasb..co.uk/. The IASB Conceptual Framework An Introduction, Dr Philip Dunn, AccountingWeb, 9 May 2005: http://www..accountingweb.co.uk/cgi-bin/item.cgi?id=140805d=448h=0f=0. International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) (1998); â€Å"Shaping IASC for the Future†, Discussion Paper, December, 1998 1 Footnotes [1] The non-profit organisation IASC Foundation, incorporated in March 2001 in Delaware, US is the parental body of the IASB. [2] Recommendations on Shaping IASC for the Future: A Report of the International Accounting Standards Committee’s Strategy Working Party, Recommendations to the IASC Board, 30 November 1999: http://www.iasb.org/uploaded_files/documents/8_210_swp_rep.pdf. And see: International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) (1998); â€Å"Shaping IASC for the Future†, Discussion Paper, December, 1998. [3] For an insightful overview see: Alfredson et al., Applying International Accounting Standards, (2005) Wiley. [4] See: http://www.iasb.org/Home.htm. [5] Memorandum of Understanding between the FASB and the IASB 27 February 2006: http://www.iasb.co.uk/. [6] See: http://www.iasb.co.uk/. [7] This is an integral part of the process towards removal of the duty owed by foreign registrants with the SEC to converge their financial statements to the US GAAP model. [8] See for general background and insightful comment: Lewis, R. and Pendrill, D. 2004 Advanced Financial Accounting 7th edition. [9] Statement of Sir David Tweedie, Chairman of the IASB, Before the Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs of the United States Senate, Washington DC, 9 September 2004: http://www.iasb.org/uploaded_files/documents/8_129_040909-dpt.pdf. [10] See: Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements, http://www.iasplus.com/standard/framewk.htm. [11] The IASB Conceptual Framework An Introduction, Dr Philip Dunn, AccountingWeb, 9 May 2005: http://www.accountingweb.co.uk/cgi-bin/item.cgi?id=140805d=448h=0f=0. [12] Horngren, Charles T., â€Å"Uses and Limitations of a Conceptual Framework,† Journal of Accountancy, April 1981, p. 90. [13] See: http://www.iasb.org/current/active_projects.asp?showPageContent=noxml=16_107_116_30112004.htm [14] Inman, UK accounting firms enjoy  £1bn bonanza in wake of Enron, The Guardian, 28 June 2006.

To Know a Fly Essay example -- Vincent G. Dethier To Know a Fly Essays

To Know a Fly The book, To Know a Fly by Vincent G. Dethier, is about a scientist who fell in love with the fly. Professor Dethier isn’t like most scientists who are idolized for their accomplishments and rejected for the lack of ability to communicate with society. He was known for being an outstanding researcher, and he also had the wonderful gift of communication. The fact that he was fascinated by the knowledge that could be obtained from such a simple species, such as the fly, also made him popular with the public. The main focus of the book involves Professor Dethier designing and performing various experiments. Each experiment done by Professor Dethier is very simple, therefore the reader is informed, and as Professor Dethier adds interesting facts about the experiments of the fly the reader can interpret it easier. Professor Dethier begins the book by explaining how science and scientist are often misunderstood. He continues by stating that anyone can be a scientist if they want w ish. However, they must posses certain characteristics such as love for nature, curiosity of life, and a soaring imagination. After convincing the reader that they can understand and appreciate science, Professor Dethier begins to inform the reader about the fly. He begins by defending the fly. Most everyone has a mutual understanding that flies are pests and are often considered to be disease infested. Most people don’t even want to be in the presence of a fly. Moreover, flies aren’t ...

Cultural Sensitivity in Counseling Native Americans

Three of the most popular techniques in use by the counseling profession were examined in relationship to Native American culture and worldview, in order to determine the reasons for their ineffectiveness among these people groups. The results indicate that a lack of understanding and sensitivity to Native American culture and belief systems by counselors may be the major contributing factors in the failure of these methods to produce lasting change. Three alternative methods were then investigated. Together, these examinations show that cultural sensitivity and an in-depth understanding of belief systems and practices are critical in helping Native Americans heal from historical traumas and affect real transformation within the Native American community. Cultural Sensitivity in Counseling: A Perspective on Native Americans Why is it that many Native Americans fail to benefit from counseling? Why is there such an enormous â€Å"burn-out† rate among counselors who work with this people group? These questions are becoming increasingly more important in the counseling profession. There have been many studies on competencies and practices in multicultural counseling. One such study although dealing primarily with career counseling (Vespia, Fitzpatrick, Fouad, Kantamneni, & Chen, 2010), reinforced the necessity for training in developing a counselor’s competency with diverse cultures. Another study which dealt specifically with psychotherapy (Lambert, Smart, Campbell, Hawkins, Harmon, & Slade, 2006), echoes this sentiment. However, the cause of ineffectiveness may not necessarily be the incompetence of counselors, but their tendency to use inappropriate methods which fail to consider the unique cultural heritage of Native Americans. These culturally-insensitive methods can sometimes compel clients to violate basic personal values. For example, Native Americans place great emphasis on a harmonious co-existence with nature. If a counselor advocates individual responsibility for mastering the environment, he is, in fact, asking his Native American client to disregard a part of his client’s cultural belief system. Take the case of Robert Red Elk (not his real name), a White Mountain Apache, hired at a manufacturing plant in Phoenix, Arizona. Robert’s supervisor witnessed many instances where Robert’s fellow employees asked to share his lunch or complete their work assignments. Robert never refused and willingly overworked himself (to the point of exhaustion) finishing the tasks of others. Eventually, after several absences from work, Robert was referred to counseling by his supervisor. The counselor, after an initial assessment, enrolled Robert in assertiveness training. The counselor, however, failed to understand one very important aspect of Robert Red Elk’s value system: Native Americans are not individualistic. Their culture places great value on sharing and service. There are over 500 federally recognized Indian tribes in the United States. Each tribe has its own beliefs, customs and traditions. Many Native Americans have left the reservation and know very little of their tribal culture, having assimilated into White society. There are, however, many common threads running through Native American culture and philosophy, which if misunderstood can open a breach between counselor and client that can be difficult to heal. For the purposes of this paper, we will be dealing primarily with Native Americans raised and residing within traditional Indian reservation communities. These individuals have retained much of their cultural identity, as opposed to those who have moved into the cities and have become westernized into the White culture. Nearly every tribe has wide-spread personal and social issues which are threatening lives and creating broken homes and broken people. Compared with other racial and ethnic groups, Native Americans have more serious problems with mental health disorders (Olson & Wahab, 2006, p. 19-33). For example, on the Pine Ridge Reservation of the Lakota Sioux, over 50% live below the poverty level. In 2007, the suicide rate there was 3. 2 times that of Whites, between 50% and 90% were unemployed, and the death rate due o alcoholism was 7 times the national average (Diller, 2007). Counselors employ many methods in an attempt to help Native American clients heal from brokenness. This investigation will examine three popular techniques: Free association, cognitive therapy, and behavior modification. In addition, we will discuss why these methods are failing with many Native American clients. First, however, there is a need to explore the average Native American value system. The Native American Value System Silence and Talking. Native Americans believe that listening is the best way to learn. They understand that there are many â€Å"voices† to hear, not merely from other people, but from the earth, the wind, the sky, and the animal kingdom. They listen not only with their physical ears, but with their whole being in an attitude of â€Å"watch, listen and then act† (Nerburn, 2002). They believe it unwise to speak before completely formulating one’s thoughts. They understand the power of words, and so they speak carefully, choosing words judiciously. In most non-native cultures, interaction with others must be filled with words and speaking that can sometimes become argumentative. Just the opposite is true in most Native American cultures. When asked a question, there will normally be a pause before answering, because any question worthy of an answer is worth considering. When they finally do speak, it is expected that the hearer will listen. Interrupting is considered rude and a sign of ignorance. This practice of silence has a tendency to disconcert someone who is unfamiliar with it, and historically, Caucasians have viewed it as a sign of stupidity. Freedom and Honor Native American cultures value honor far above freedom. Honor is the internal guide for nearly everything they do. The focus is more on what is right, rather than what is wrong. This is one reason why Native Americans have a difficult time understanding the concept of sin. In addition, honor is something that cannot be taken away. If one loses his freedom, he still retains his honor. These views of freedom and honor are very different from those held by western peoples. In the White world, honor means paying homage to or admiring an individual’s accomplishments. To the Native American, honor means knowing and doing what is right for oneself and for one’s community. It has no relation to laws or the desire to avoid punishment. Freedom only becomes important after one has been â€Å"chained up,† either literally or by the enactment of laws and restrictions (Nerburn, 2002). All My Relations and Racism According to the New Lakota Dictionary, â€Å"Mitakuye oyasin† translates to â€Å"all my relatives† in Lakota Sioux (Ullrich, 2008, p. 37). The concept of all my relations constitutes an understanding of and honor for the sacredness of each person's individual spiritual path. It acknowledges the sacredness of all life (human, animal, plant, etc. ) and creates an awareness that strengthens not only the individual, but the entire planet. It essentially means that everything is inter-related. In the living of daily life, a ll my relations â€Å"means learning how to connect with certain constructive or creative forces, and disconnect from destructive forces† (Portman & Garrett, 2006). It’s the understanding that whatever hurts one aspect of the world hurts everything else. Rolling Thunder, the late spiritual leader of the Cherokee and Shoshone tribes, said, â€Å"Too many people don't know that when they harm the earth they harm themselves, nor do they realize that when they harm themselves they harm the earth†¦We say there's room for everyone, if we all share as brothers and sisters† (â€Å"Plowboy Interview,† 1981). This belief in the brotherhood of the human race is one reason why Native Americans abhor racism. Another reason is their suffering because of it. From the 1490's to the 1890's, Europeans and white Americans engaged in an unbroken string of genocide campaigns against the Native people of the Americas† (BigFoot & Willmon-Hague, 2008, p. 54). A study on multi-faith perspectives in family therapy made note of the following historical treatment of Native Americans: â€Å"In government and missionary programs to educate an d acculturate Indians in Christianity and Western ways, children were forcibly taken from their families to boarding schools and stripped of their cultural and spiritual heritage† (Walsh, 2010, p. 3). Consequently, Native Americans view racism as evil and most avoid retaliation, because they believe it creates a loss of honor. However, many American Indians still retain an inherent mistrust of Whites (Bryant-Davis & Ocampo, 2006, p. 16). In a study on reservation violence, it was noted that traditionally one important factor regarding Native American philosophy was â€Å"humility to those with whom one does not share beliefs; and teaching nonviolent behaviors† (Hukill, 2006, p. 249). A reintegration with traditional beliefs and practices could help stem the violence on reservations. Concept of Time Native people are not enslaved by a clock or calendar. Their concept of time is related more to the seasons, nature, relationships, and life spans. Time is a cycle as, in the sacred hoop. Time is not measured in linear fashion, having a past, present and future. Living each day as it comes is linked to the belief that one should focus more on being than becoming. This concept of time can explain why Native Americans might be late for counseling appointments by the hour or by days. Adherence to a rigid schedule is not traditionally an Indian practice. Things are done as they need doing. Time is flexible and geared to the activity at hand. Some other examples of this concept of time are: * A right time and a right place, as opposed to making every minute count. * Today is a good day, as opposed to preparing for tomorrow. Other concepts that affect how Native Americans react to traditional counseling methods include striving for anonymity, discouraging aggressiveness (such as boasting and loud behavior), the value of inaction over action, and the use of tribal healing ceremonies. Understanding Native American healing practices requires helping professionals to have knowledge of the cultural belief systems that are unique for each tribal nation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Portman & Garrett, 2006, p. 455). Culturally Insensitive Counseling Methods Counseling methods that fail to consider culturally-relevant issues are realizing few successes with native peoples. Three of the most prominent techniques fail to take into account the Native Americanâ €™s holistic belief system and attempt to merely change behavior by changing one’s thinking. Free Association. Free association is a spontaneous, logically unconstrained and undirected association of ideas, emotions and feelings in which words or images suggest other words or images in a non-logical chain reaction. The basic concept is for the client to sort things out, and assign reasons to their feelings, with the intention of changing unhealthy ideas and emotions into a more acceptable way of living. Native American clients typically shy away from participating in this type of activity, because they see it as senseless babbling that accomplishes little and makes a person appear to have lost their mind. They much prefer being silent and listening to talking and babbling themselves into a reasonable state of mind. In addition, they are very cautious about sharing personal and family problems, and have difficulty communicating their reactions to situations. Cognitive Therapy Cognitive therapy aims to identify and correct distorted thinking patterns that lead to feelings and behavior that are troublesome, self-defeating or self-destructive. The objective is to replace distorted thinking with a balanced view that leads to more fulfilling and productive behavior. Due to the epidemic of depression, alcoholism and suicide among Native Americans, this is an admirable objective for counselors to attempt to achieve. However, for a people, who are holistically-minded, cognitive therapy considers only one facet of the whole person, and ignores the connection humans have with nature and the world. This approach disavows the unity of the person, a central core belief in Native American culture. To separate the mind from the body and spirit, and with the rest of creation, is an illogical and foreign concept to them. In addition, most Native Americans are pragmatic and tend to see life in concrete terms rather than abstract ones. Therefore, â€Å"counselors may consider working from a holistic, wellness-based framework,† so that harmony and balance can be restored (Rayle, Chee, & Sand, 2006, p. 72). Behavior Modification This approach is a treatment approach based on operant conditioning that seeks to extinguish or inhibit abnormal or maladaptive behavior by positive or negative reinforcement. As with cognitive therapy, behavior modification focuses entirely on one facet of the whole person. Native Americans are very resistant to this approach, because they do not always focus on their thinking. Historically, they have been exposed to the inconsistency of people thinking one way and behaving another way. According to Native American culture, behavior reflects belief. Attempting to change behavior from the outside and failing to deal with internal issues is viewed as a waste of energy and considered unproductive. Typically, Native Americans respond better to holistic methods that involve the whole person: body, mind and spirit. Culturally insensitive approaches to counseling can actually introduce a sense of mistrust into relationships between native clients and non-native counselors derailing attempts to help them overcome the issues that defeat them. This is one reason why Native Americans â€Å"underutilize mainstream mental health resources† (Parrish, 2006, p. 15). Culturally Supportive Approaches to Counseling As understanding and knowledge of cultural beliefs and practices grows, holistic approaches to counseling are becoming more prevalent in clinics and practices in which the majority of clients are Native American. There are several methods which are showing great promise in helping these clients. Inner Healing Prayer Because Native American culture is infused with the spiritual and encompasses a holistic view of the body, soul and spirit, the concept of listening, which is the foundation of this method, lends itself to a more culturally-relevant way of approaching the mental and emotional issues found among indigenous peoples. Native cultures are already accustomed to listening because of their practice of being attentive to the sounds of nature and the practices of oral traditions passed down through the stories of tribal elders. They understand that listening is one of the best ways to learn. The inner healing prayer can offer Native Americans a way to re-establish harmony with their body, their emotions, and their spiritual selves (Rayle, Chee & Sand, 2006, p. 77), since it begins with addressing one’s emotional hurts. â€Å"It is counselor-led and client-consented prayer intervention with the specific intent of healing and breaking the chains of past traumas† (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002, p. 240). When woundedness goes unresolved, it affects the whole person creating disharmony within the body, soul and spirit. Native American culture already understands this concept. The typical scenario is to give the client permission to experience what they feel, and allow their inner emotions to express themselves in a controlled, safe environment. Encouraging them to remember those painful places and the trauma that occurred there helps bring emotions to the surface where they can be explored, felt, owned, and released from the captured place within the spirit. Once accomplished, the counselor can then ask the Lord Jesus [Great Mystery] to minister His love and grace, revealing truth in whatever manner He chooses. The counselor then remains silent, encouraging the client to verbally express whatever is transpiring within them and articulate whatever truth the Lord is revealing to them. The counselor’s role is to discern whether the client is receiving truth from the Lord (according to the revealed Word of God) or error manifested from within themselves, which would constitute feelings and/or thoughts that run contrary to scripture. Once it is determined that authentic truth has been received, the counselor then asks the client what is now different about that traumatic event when they reconsider it. At this point, an entirely different perspective is usually revealed by the client. It is important when using this method, as it is with any technique, to â€Å"weave Western counseling techniques with elements of the AI [American Indian] culture, beliefs, and philosophy† (Rayle, Chee & Sand, 2006, p. 73-74) [emphasis mine]. It is well to remember, however, that many Native Americans do not believe in the â€Å"white man’s God. It is important, therefore, to use terms for deity that are culturally relevant, such as Great Mystery, Great Spirit, etc. This approach has shown great potential in overcoming issues such as depression and addiction. Spiritual Talking Talking circles, storytelling and remembering/reflecting on life is very common in Native American culture. Many indigenous children receive th eir first life lessons sitting at the feet of their elders as grandmothers and grandfathers recount tribal stories that teach the traditions of the tribe (Rybak & Decker-Fitts, 2009, p. 337). Since native people relate more to â€Å"the now,† it is very therapeutic to recall and embrace the good things in one’s present situation. Talking aloud about pleasant experiences helps clients see the good in their present circumstances and allows their spirit to â€Å"be as one† with their body-mind uniting them with the world at large. This enables them to see the big picture and brings everything into a healthy perspective. The role of the counselor in this technique is to facilitate the talking and keep the client on track, while providing a safe environment for them. Another form that spiritual talking may take is in the use of humor. Native cultures inherently understand the old cliche: Laughter is the best medicine. Encouraging clients to share comical stories and experiences can provide insight into the client’s identity and self-image. However, counselors should exercise caution in using humor. It should only be introduced â€Å"when and if the client invites it, meaning that the client trusts the counselor enough to connect on that level† (Garrett, et al. , 2005, p. 202). The Holistic Medicine Wheel or Red Path One of the most effective healing techniques and one which incorporates extensively the Native American culture is the Medicine Wheel, sometimes called the Red Path or Red Road. The Medicine Wheel is a symbol of Native America in which four colors (white, black, yellow and red) are used to represent the four directions and the four races of people (Caucasian, African, Asian and Indian), respectively. This symbol also represents the harmony and balance of the mind, body and spirit with nature. The Medicine Wheel is regarded as sacred among Native Americans, since â€Å"medicine† is a spiritual entity within their culture. The Medicine Wheel is recognized by all tribes and is a common symbol of unity. It represents healing, not only for oneself, but for the entire native community. This technique, when employed in the counseling setting, includes not only the counselor and client, but also family and friends. It can also be a good tool for use in group counseling where all participants share in a common issue. The facilitator/counselor invites all present to form a circle. The concept of the four directions and their meanings is then discussed. A good representation is: * East represents the rising sun and the spirit or inner being of man (red). * South is connected to full daylight and represents a connection with nature (yellow). * North is the home of winter and represents the mind or thoughts (white). * West is where the sun sets and is connected with the body or physical being (black). (Molina, Monteiro-Leitner, Garrett & Gladding, 2005, p. 9). The counselor then explains the concept of circles within circles. Dallas Williard’s Model of the Person is an excellent starting pattern for this concept (Clinton & Ohlschlager, 2002, p. 190). Molina, et al. explain this technique well: An inner circle represents the connection to one’s Spirit and to the Greater Spirit; an outer circle represents the importance of relationships with family members; and a community circle represents the importance of relationships with the greater community. At this point, volunteers sit behind each person in the inner circle, forming an outer circle. Finally, the remaining participants form a third circle, which lends support to the inner and outer circles. Throughout the process, life stories emerge. Counselors identify client strengths and validate their experiences, and participants offer support to one another and create â€Å"happy† endings to their stories (p. 9). This method helps clients see â€Å"how they create and remove the masks of the self† (Molina, Monteiro-Leitner, Garrett & Gladding, 2005, p. 9). The removal of masks allows the client to be open with their true feelings and to see their issues from a different perspective. A doctoral dissertation by Mark Parrish (2008) offers another well-described view of the Circle Within Circles Approach: The elements of the circle within circles includes: (1) the spirit within us including the culmination of each individual’s experiences representing the power that comes from the very essence of one’s being; (2) the family and/or clan, the relational center of the community; (3) the natural environment and all of its relationships with living beings; and (4) the spirit world which includes the other elements as well as the Creator, ancestors and other spirit helpers and guides. In essence, all life is interdependent and exists in a dynamic state of harmony and balance which maintains a continuous flow and cycling of energy which each living being contributes to the Circle of Life (p. 16). The Medicine Wheel and the Circle Within Circles â€Å"serves as a reminder that all aspects of life are important and need to be balanced† (Rybak & Decker-Fitts, 2009, p. 336). Although most individuals will still require more intensive therapy, the Medicine Wheel is a good starting point to help clients remember that they are not an island, but are connected to other individuals and to the world as a whole. Personal Reflections Understanding Native American culture, and learning their views life has caused me to reconsider my own lifestyle and my Caucasian worldview. As westerners, we are an inherently individualistic society, whereas Native Americans are more collective. The mindset and complex belief systems of indigenous people are more similar to God’s original plan for mankind than that which White society has developed. Jesus prayed to the Father for unity: that His followers would â€Å"be one, as we are. (John 17:11b, KJV). Native American culture appears to mirror His prayer more than that of Caucasians. Native Americans are more in tune with their spiritual natures than we, and were the original holistic healers. They understand the concept of man’s triune nature as set forth in 1 Thessalonians 5:23: â€Å"And the very God of peace sanctify you wholly; and I pray God your whole spirit and soul and body be preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus Ch rist† [emphasis mine]. This concept has been a vital part of their culture for hundreds of years, whereas we are just now (within the past decade) becoming more sensitive to a holistic approach in counseling and medicine. It is very interesting that as one learns the culture and values of Native Americans, one begins to see that there are many aspects that reflect basic biblical principles. Western counseling methods, which have been imposed upon the Native Americans for many years, are very foreign to a people who already understand an important truth of God’s Word. It makes much better sense to first understand their culture and beliefs and then adapt our methods and techniques accordingly, in order to be more effective facilitators in the healing process. Not only will these historically-wounded people be set free with true inner healing, but at the same time many may come into a full knowledge of and a relationship with the true Lord Jesus Christ. Jesus healed the blind man of his physical ailments before healing him of his spiritual malady. Therefore, if we connect with Native Americans through their ways of life, love them in Christ, and keep the Holy Spirit as the center of our ministry to them, many of these forgotten people can enjoy a fullness of life that only comes through the healing power of Christ. As a Christian counselor, I will be committed to providing the Native American people with a biblically-sound, culturally-relevant approach to helping them heal the issues from which they suffer, both historically and personally. As I become more knowledgeable in their beliefs, traditions and worldview, I can foresee a time when what I am learning now will blend with that insight to produce techniques which will enable me to be a more effective counselor to the people to whom God has called me to minister. Conclusion To be effective counselors within the Native American community, it is not enough that we increase our knowledge of psychology and our skills in counseling. We need to immerse ourselves in the cultural issues pertinent to each individual client and the community which has shaped them. This comes by understanding belief systems and cultural contexts, and determining what methods can and cannot work based upon these parameters. Native American culture is centered on certain holistic viewpoints: the wholeness of the individual (body, mind and spirit), the individual’s interconnectedness with creation, and the relationship all people have with one another. Counseling such a people involves understanding and respecting values, beliefs and traditions, and tailoring our methods and techniques around restoring harmony and balance in ways which do not demand or manipulate Native Americans into ceasing to be Native American. One very good exercise for assisting in the development of counselor competency in this area is cultural auditing, which is a â€Å"systematic and practical reflective method designed to address critical elements of the multicultural competency development process† (Collins, Arthur & Wong-Wylie, 2010, p. 340-346). The 13 steps of this process lead counselors through the first to last counseling sessions by helping them reflect on key issues of culture that can help them develop competent strategies and monitor their practices â€Å"to ensure that the goals and processes of counseling are consistent with clients’ perspectives and needs† (Collins, Arthur & Wong-Wylie, 2010, p. 341). In order for greater effectiveness to be realized in counseling Native Americans (and indeed people of all cultures), mental health professionals and researchers must understand that all methods do not work with all people. Milton Erickson, one of psychotherapy’s most respected figures, who was of Native American descent, understood this very well (Thomason, 2009, p. 351). A 40-year study of multicultural counseling, completed in 2008 by Michael D’Andrea and Elizabeth Foster Heckman, discovered many inconsistencies and out-dated methods being utilized with clients of diverse cultures, and called for researchers to â€Å"expand their outcome studies to examine the impact of other types of helping services among culturally different populations† (D’Andrea & Heckman, 2008, p. 62). Their final statement summarizes beautifully what is needed for effective, long-term resolution for Native Americans: We suggest that the multicultural counseling movement is a movement of faith and hope: faith in counselors’ ability to generate new understanding of mental health from a multicultural perspective and hope that future counseling and research endeavors will be implemented to more e ffectively promote human dignity and development through people’s collective diversity (D’Andrea & Heckman, 2008, p. 362). The increase of diverse of cultures within the United States makes it imperative (a) â€Å"that therapists have the skills to work with a variety of clients from a multitude of social backgrounds (Murphy, Park & Lonsdale, 2006, p. 310); and (b) â€Å"for the counseling profession to take a proactive stance on cultural diversity† (Phiri-Alleman & Allman, 2010, p. 157). Culturally competent counseling has been addressed by the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics (ACA) and the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). Both of these groups stress the importance of social and cultural diversity in training programs for counselors, and emphasize the need for culturally-relevant treatment planning, especially when working with Native Americans (Parrish, 2008, p. 17). The competency of multicultural counselors can best be developed by encouraging them to become knowledgeable in the beliefs, traditions and worldview of various cultures and utilize that knowledge to tailor their counseling techniques in ways that will boost the effectiveness of their practice.

British conquest essays

British conquest essays Canadian History has many distinct and unique chapters. Among the most significant of these chapters is the colonization of the area surrounding the St. Lawrence River in what is now the Province of Quebec. To better understand the colony of New France and its significance to the Canadian story, an examination of the administration, the church and the land tenure system of New France, will be necessary. The origins of New France are rooted in the 16th century. During his second voyage across the Atlantic Ocean, in 1535, Jacques Cartier discovered the existence of, "the St. Lawrence, the river of Canada" (Cafe and Lower, 1948. pg. 27). This river was to become the heart and main transportation system of the New France colony. Despite the fact that Cartier's discovery of the St. Lawrence area occurred in 1535, the first permanent French colony in New France was not established until 1608 when Samuel de Champlain and De Monts founded a colony on what is now the city of Quebec. It should be noted that the small French colony of Port Royal, located in what once was called L'Acadie (now part of the modern maritime provinces) was founded before Quebec, in 1605. However, it was Quebec City, located on the banks of the St. Lawrence River, which was to become the center of New France, in terms of colonial administration and trade. The French settlement of northeastern part of North America continued slowly over the next 50 years. Fur trading companies controlled much of the colonial administration. These fur traders were concerned solely with the acquisition of furs from the Native people living in the area. They thwarted many of Champlain's efforts to attract settlers. Wars with England in Europe and the Iroquois in Canada also prevented many potential colonists from settling in New France. The war with the Iroquois would prove to be too costly for the fur trading companies to properly defend the colony. Despite this the colonial adminis...

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